By Peter Vakunta,PhD
Introduction
Generally speaking, learners of foreign languages embark on the apprenticeship cruise with great enthusiasm. But, the excitement of courting a new linguistic bride soon metamorphoses into crippling
angst and apathy. This turn of events is attributable to the mammoth challenges that usually confront the language learner as the learning experience becomes increasingly harrowing. Many factors account for this logjam, not least of which is learners’ ignorance of personal learning styles. A learning style may be defined as one’s natural predisposition to process learning material in one way rather than the other (Reid, 1998)[i].Learning styles are conceivable in the form of bipolar opposites as seen below:
Active------------Reflective
Sensing-----------Intuitive
Visual------------Verbal
Sequential------ Global
Active learners internalize new information by doing something with it. They love to try things out; they experiment with new information. Active learners enjoy group work because this enables them to learn collaboratively.On the contrary, reflective learners prefer to think about new information first before acting on it. Oftentimes,they prefer to think through problems first on their own rather than engage in group discussion. Sensing learners learn through facts. They are inclined to solve problems through established methods. They are generally careful, practical and patient learners who are inclined to seek connections between new knowledge and the real world. Their polar opposites are intuitive learners, those who learn through discovery of new relationships. They dislike repetitive learning that involves rote memorization. Visual learners imbibe new information by seeing it in the form of pictures, demonstrations, diagrams, charts, films and so on. Opposed to visual learners are verbal learners. These learners tend to process new information through the written and spoken word. Sequential learners are comfortable with understanding learning material in linear steps where each step follows logically from the previous one. On the other hand, global learners look for the big picture. They assimilate information in large chunks. Globalists absorb material without necessarily seeing any connections between the pieces.
The foregoing has wide-ranging ramifications for language pedagogy at all levels (K-16)[ii]. Language instructors should consider the option of creating learning tasks that encourage learners to process learning material in ways different from their natural predisposition. To put this differently, language instructors would do learners a great service by designing classroom activities that encourage learners to get out of their ‘comfort’ zone and stretch their learning styles to accommodate approaches they have tended to resist in the past. When feasible, learning styles should be aligned with teaching styles in a bid to maximize learning opportunities for language learners. There is no gainsaying the fact that the difficulty of gaining proficiency in a foreign language cannot be narrowed down to learning styles alone. Other factors of equal importance have the potential to make or mar the language learning process. I will shed ample light on these factors and suggest strategies that should alleviate the pangs associated with acquiring a second language[iii].
Listening
Listening comprehension is the bugbear of the foreign language learner. More often than not, listening is impaired by a number of factors, not least of which is learners’ inability to dissociate active from passive listening. Unlike passive listening or hearing, active listening entails listening with intensity (concentrating on the message and the messenger). It also means listening with empathy (listening to understand the speaker/getting into speaker’s shoes). Active listening presupposes acceptance (this does not mean agreeing with the speaker; it simply means being objective rather than judgmental). Active listeners tend to take responsibility for completeness of the message. Jeremy Francis[iv] suggests useful tips for effective listening:
- Make eye contact (non-verbal behavior);
- Avoid distractors (e.g. ambient noise, looking out the window, picking your nose,etc);
- Paraphrase(summarize what you hear);
- Don’t interrupt speaker, don’t talk too much; and
- Confront your biases and stereotypes.
Foreign language learners should familiarize themselves with the sounds,stress and intonations of the target language by combining passive and active listening strategies. Proficiency in a target language can be achieved through this sort of hybrid listening. It is important for learners to use authentic listening materials for the purpose of familiarizing themselves withthe sounds of their target languages. Listening to BBC, watching online TV in the target languages, and listening to music on i-pods, or You-tube can be very helpful in the language learning process.
Other strategies have proven to be dependable in acquiring effective listening comprehension skills, namely the bottom-up/top-bottom
listening and skim listening techniques. Foreign language learners should alternate between the techniques of listening for the ‘big picture’ and listening for specific details. Summarizing or paraphrasing in their minds what they hear may be a very effective strategy for retaining the essential elements of information (EEI’s)[v] in the audio texts. Learners should also form the habit of predicting what the speaker is about to say based on what they have just heard. Most importantly, they should have recourse to context clues in order to avoid getting bogged down by unfamiliar words.
Skim Listening
It is of critical importance for language learners to practice skim listening from time to time in order to train in the art of weeding out irrelevant pieces of information in the audio texts. Learners should not stop listening when they stumble on unknown words in the oral passage(s). Rather, they should endeavor to conjecture the meaning of these words from context. It is good practice to watch out for ambiguity and redundancy in listening comprehension passages. In addition, language learners should read some background materials in their native tongues as a prelude to performing listening tasks in their target languages. Given that there is a strong correlation between vocabulary retention and listening comprehension, language learners would do well to have recourse to effective vocabulary retention techniques similar to those discussed below.
The Repetition Cycle
One effective way to gain confidence and be able to listen and comprehend native speakers is for language learners to enrich their lexical banks. It is common knowledge among language practitioners that poor mastery of grammatical rules would not cause a breakdown in communication. What stalls communication is lack of vocabulary. Vocabulary retention can be facilitated by resorting to the technique of repetition cycle. This strategy enables language learners to practice listening, speaking and writing in the target language in the form of a cycle—listen and read, read and record, listen and write. Regardless of where the language learner wants to start, s/he should make sure that s/he is actively engaged in all three activities at the same time. SCOLA Insta-class[vi] provides an excellent opportunity for learners to put this technique into practice. Vocabulary memorization tends to be easy when words are re-used or recycled. Language instructors need to encourage learners to adopt the strategy of vocabulary recycling on a regular basis in a bid to improve language proficiency. Rather than stop at words, learners should use words in constructing meaningful sentences, short and long paragraphs. Research shows that the vast majority of words in a foreign language are mastered from contextualized usage of learned words. For example, using new words they have just learned, learners could begin to write short stories relating to their lived experiences, circle of friends, family and daily routine.This practice is extremely useful for vocabulary retention.
Language learners generally perform well when they endeavor to link words with pictures of activities or people in real-life. For instance, learners could try to identify and list the vocabulary associated with the picture; next they could create a summary of what is occurring in the picture. Then, they could create a summary of what occurred just before the picture was taken. Finally, they could write a synopsis of what happened after the picture was taken. This activity enables learners to develop more vocabulary retention skills and enhance their listening capability at the same time. Foreign language learners should consider the possibility of practicing dictation with instructors and tutors for the purpose of enriching their functional vocabulary. Another useful strategy for enlarging one’s word bank in a second language is the technique of spaced repetition.
Spaced Repetition of Vocabulary
Vocabulary retention is best achieved through many interactions with words over time. Learning new words in class and not recycling them may be insufficient for attaining the desired level of functional proficiency in the target language. Language learners stand to gain from studying vocabulary throughout the day in short five-minute increments, using the spiraling technique also called spaced repetition. Flashcards could be used for the same purpose. During school days, review of vocabulary could be done before class starts, between classes, during breaks, lunch time, and other times throughout the day when students have small amounts of free time available (e.g., waiting for the bus or standing in line in the cafeteria). The purpose of this task is threefold: increase learners’ retention of the vocabulary learned, free up study time at the end of the day for review, and lower stress levels resulting from learning large amounts of vocabulary. A rich lexical bank makes reading enjoyable.
Reading
Foreign language learners should complement classroom reading activities with supplementary reading material in the target language. This could be a combination of short and long texts. They should read different kinds of texts in the target language (advertisements, letters, newspapers, instructions in manuals, announcements, directions and more). Learners should look for material that is at their proficiency level.[vii] They should identify in advance what their reading goal is and then read with that objective in mind. Language learners’ goal may be vocabulary retention,grammar review or some other aspect of language mastery. Before reading, they could make predictions about what the text will be about based on the topic. They should check periodically to ascertain that the material is making sense to them. Learners should use context to guess the meanings of unfamiliar words in the material they are reading. They should form the habit of identifying new words or phrases in the reading and add them to their vocabulary lists. Most importantly, learners should rate their comprehension by reflecting on how much they retained from what they just read. Like reading, speaking a foreign language would be a daunting tasking if enough functional words have not been mastered by the language learner.
Speaking
Combine speaking with listening using the modalities described above. Like other aspects of language mastery, speaking a target language comes with regular practice. Language learners should not shy away from speaking the language they are learning. They should form the habit of talking about things that interest them; things that relate to their personal experiences. They should practice speaking using learned words and expressions with a partner or tutor. It is rewarding to try to model the speech patterns of native speakers. Put differently, language learners should think about how a native speaker might say something and practice saying it that way. Good language learners seek out opportunities to talk to native speakers on a regular basis. In other words, they initiate conversations in the target language as often as possible and try to direct the conversation to familiar topics. They encourage native speakers to correct errors in their speech. They circumvent lexical hurdles by substituting known words for the unknown. In other words, they look for different ways to express ideas (e.g. synonyms). Efficient language learners constantly check to see whether or not they have accomplished their communication goals. They read out loud. They mimic the speech patterns of native speakers of the language. Although most people feel embarrassed making strange sounds in the target language, this feeling of awkwardness dissipates as the learner gains functional proficiency in the language. When called on in class, say something, even if it's wrong: you'll learn from it. If you don't know the answer, say in your foreign language, "I don't know." Practice not just speaking but also writing your new language with a foreign student or classmate. [viii]
Writing
The joy of writing a foreign language could be killed by the novelty of the alphabet and diacritical signs[ix] associated with the pronunciation of words in the target language. Language learners need to pay attention to phonological details[x]: accents, order of letters, etc. They should study the morphology[xi] of the language they are learning. They should take time to compare letter by letter different forms (singular, plural, gender, etc.). Write out conjugations of verbs, declensions of pronouns, etc., and check the endings. Memorize regular and irregular verbs. To master spelling,have a friend dictate ten words to you on a daily basis. Write them out and immediately have your friend spell them correctly aloud while you look carefully and point at each letter. Repeat until you get all the words right. These activities provide the language learner with a good grounding in the target language grammar.
Grammar
Combine vocabulary review with grammar practice. Reviewing vocabulary provides language learners with an excellent opportunity to revisit grammatical rules. Assume nothing in the study of the target language. The language you're learning may be very different from your L1 or mother tongue. English for example, has twelve verbal tenses as opposed to Levantine (Arabic dialect) that has only two. Language learners must be prepared to fill these gaps in the language learning process and move on. In reviewing grammatical concepts studied in a previous unit, learners could use grammatical points in sentence construction at different levels on the ILR scale. This is an effective way to review grammatical concepts such as parts of speech, tenses and sentence structure. The more interaction learners have with grammar, the better they will be able to use it in conversation or writing. The time spent quietly reviewing grammar is time well spent. It is always a good idea on weekends to preview the grammar that is going to be taught in class the following day. It is also a brilliant idea to simulate grammar tests. Language learners should work at home on simulating grammar testing conditions using online resources such as GLOSS, JLU CL-150, SCOLA and more. This will help them prepare for unit tests. By increasing the intensity of home grammar practice learners will be more prepared to cope with stress associated with test taking.
Test taking strategies
Coping with test anxiety can be traumatic for some language learners. Short-term stress may help initially, but long-term stress is detrimental to language learning. To get over test anxiety learners should simulate test conditions. This can be done by practicing with online listening and reading practice tests as if they were part of a real test. Learners should resist the temptation to rewind or stop the audio texts. They should read the questions, listen to the passage once or twice and then answer the questions. Since learners tend to second guess themselves on tests, they should use this time to answer immediately and move onto the next question. They must trust their first instincts and steer clear of over thinking test questions. Learners should take note of how often their first choice is correct in order to gain the confidence they need to do the same on subsequent tests. Test-takers tend to over-analyze test questions because they believe that examiners are out to trick them. The consequence of this mindset is that examinees see pitfalls where none exists. Learners should watch out for twists in audio and reading passages because ‘twist in the end” narratives may harbor the tone of the speaker or writer. Tone questions are trickier than main point and detail-oriented questions because they call for inferences. Language learners must look for aspects of the target language culture that motivate them.
Intrinsic and Instrumental Motivation
Research shows that effective language learners are highly motivated individuals. Motivation is the ingredient that drives a person to make certain choices, to engage and persist in action. Motivation is very important in second language acquisition. Language learners need extra help in maintaining intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Fuller (1987)[xii] recommends recourse to foreign language films, foods, music, books, comics, radio broadcasts and TV channels as motivational support. These media would rekindle learners’ zeal to succeed as linguists. Language learners should consider the possibility of taking time off their busy study schedules to relax, and have fun from time to time.This leisure jogs the mind and helps language learners re-build momentum. They must resort to online resources to recharge when they return to work on their target languages.
Online resources
Language learners should avail themselves of the following on-line
resources for extra practice with authentic materials:
- GLOSS (Global Language Online Support System) at www.dliflc.edu
- Joint Language University at http://JLU.wbtrain.com
Once signed in, go to “Resources” and find your target language materials. In the ‘Advanced Search” box, choose “ILR level 1+ or 2 or even 2+. Also, look at “Language Pro” in the “Transparent Language” link on the “Resources” page.
SCOLA (TL television) at http://www.scola.org or to www.dliflc.edu
- BBC at: http://www.bbc.co.uk
- TV5 at http://www.tv5.org/
- BBC TV:http://www.tvchannelsfree.com/watch/3299/BBC-
radio.html - Transparent Language at http://www.transparent.com
- This author's online articles:
http://www.entrepreneurnewsonline.com/2010/07/pragmatics-of-learning-a-second-language.html
http://www.entrepreneurnewsonline.com/2010/09/motivation- is -key- to-language-learning-success.html http://www.postnewsline.com/2010/06/seven-habits-of-highly- effective-foreign-language-learners.html#tp
Conclusion
In a nutshell, learning a foreign language can be a gleeful experience provided learners are willing to take responsibility for their own learning. They should assume the posture of self-directed learners. The onus rests upon language instructors to maximize learning opportunities for students regardless of what their learning styles might be. They should consider the option of designing performance-based learning tasks using the ‘three-T’ paradigm (presentation-practice-product) that encourages learners to problem-solve in the learning process. The instructor of yesteryears must become the facilitator of today; teacher-centered instruction must metamorphose into learner-focused facilitation. Foreign language pedagogy
should be learner-centered, innovative, communicative and technologically-enhanced in order for outcomes of learning to be attained.
About the author
Professor Vakunta teaches modern languages at the United States Department of Defense Language Institute, Monterey-California.
Notes
[i] Reid, M.Joy. Understanding Learning Styles in the
Second Language Classroom. Upper Saddle: Prentice Hall Regents, 1998.
[ii]Kindergarten to University
[iii]In this essay the terms ‘foreign language’ and ‘second
language’ are used interchangeably.
[iv] Francis, Jeremy “Effective Listening Skills” retrieved
on May 4, 2012 from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ENkwUBPhMJw&feature=results_main&playnext=1&list=PL754BDADEC7EC8C0E
[v] EEI’s refers to the Who, What, Where, When, Why and How
in communication.
[vi] SCOLA is an acronym for Satellite
Communications for Learning. It is a non-profit educational organization that transmits foreign language news and educational programming from around the world. Language learners may accessible SCOLA at www.SCOLA.org
[vii] The Interagency Language Roundtable (ILR) scale is a set of descriptions of abilities to communicate in a language. It consists of descriptions of five levels of language proficiency, and is the standard grading scale for language proficiency in the Federal service:1 ILR Level 1 - Elementary proficiency; 2 ILR Level 2 - Limited working proficiency ;3 ILR Level 3 - Professional working |
[viii] Retrieved March16, 2012 from http://www.english-zone.com/study/langs.html
[ix] Diacritical marks, also called diacritical points, or signs are glyphs added to a letter. Some diacritical marks, such as the acute ( ´ ) and grave ( ` ) are often called accents. Diacritical marks may appear above or below a letter, or in some other position such as within the letter, or between two letters. The main function of diacritics is to change the sound value of the letter to which they are added.
[x] The word phonology refers to the sound system of a given language. Phonology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the systematic organization of sounds in languages. It focuses largely on study of the systems of phonemes in particular languages, but it may also cover any linguistic analysis either at a level beneath the word (including syllable, onset and rhyme, articulatory gestures, features, mora, etc.) or at all levels of language where sound is considered to be structured for conveying linguistic meaning. Phonology also includes the study of equivalent organizational systems in sign
languages.
[xi]In linguistics, morphology is the identification, analysis and description of the structure of a given language's morphemes and other linguistic units, such as words, affixes, parts of speech, intonation/stress, or implied context.
[xii] Fuller E. Graham. How to learn a Foreign Language.
New York: Barnes and Noble, 1987.
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